Behavioral Ecology Vol. 11 No. 2: 210-219
© 2000 International Society for Behavioral Ecology
Female reproductive success in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.): life history, habitat, provisioning, and group-size effects
a Departments of Biology and Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington DC 20057, USA b Department of Biology, UMASS-Dartmouth, Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA c Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada
Address correspondence to J. Mann. E-mail: mannj2{at}gunet.georgetown.edu .
Received 12 February 1999; accepted 19 August 1999.
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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This study examines factors influencing female reproductive success in wild Indian Ocean bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.) in Shark Bay, Australia. Eighty-three females and their 142 calves were surveyed between 1988 and 1998 (3457 surveys); 42 calves were also observed during focal follows for 1330 h. Calf mortality is 44% by age 3 (n = 110). Reproduction is moderately seasonal (September-January), peaking from October to December. Calf loss between August and December is followed by rapid conception (1-2 months), whereas conception is delayed (2-9 months) if calf loss occurs between January and July. Weaning ages ranged from 2.7 to 8.0 years, but 66.7% (42 calves) were weaned by their fourth birthday. Females tended to wean mid-pregnancy. Accordingly, median interbirth interval was 4.1 years. Female reproductive success was classified as 0, 1, 2, or 3 according to the number of calves who survived to age 3 over a 10-year period (n = 38 females with complete histories). We examined whether factors affecting predation or food availability, water depth, and group size, were related to female reproductive success. Group size was unrelated to water depth or female reproductive success, but reproductive success was predicted by water depth (p <.002). Shallow water may allow mothers and calves to detect and avoid predatory sharks. Alternatively, or additionally, prey density may be higher in shallow water compared to deep water.
Key words: birth, bottlenose dolphins, female reproductive success, interbirth interval, lactation, mortality, sociality, Tursiops, water depth, weaning.
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Long-term studies of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.) at several sites (Sarasota, Florida: Wells et al., 1987
; Moray Firth, Scotland:
Wilson et al., 1997; Shark
Bay, Australia: Connor et al.,
1992b) have revealed complex societies for these long-lived,
large-brained mammals. Dolphins are also characterized by extensive maternal
investment (Mann and Smuts,
1998; Oftedal,
1997). Yet factors affecting variation in female reproductive
success remain virtually unexplored. The current study examined how factors
such as calf mortality, weaning, interbirth intervals, breeding season,
provisioning, group size, and habitat influence female reproductive
success.
Everywhere they have been studied, dolphins live in a fission-fusion
society where individuals join and leave groups on a fluid basis, with
associations lasting minutes to years (e.g.,
Smolker et al., 1992;
Wells et al., 1987). Grouping
patterns within this flexible system likely reflect sex-specific reproductive
strategies. In Shark Bay, males form two levels of alliances in which they
herd and compete for females (Connor et al.,
1992a,b,
1999). Associations within male
alliances are strong and stable over time. Females may be highly social or
solitary, associating with related and unrelated females (Shark Bay: this
paper; Smolker et al., 1992;
Sarasota: Duffield and Wells,
1991). Whereas male reproductive strategies clearly focus on
gaining and maintaining access to cycling females, female reproductive
strategies are likely to center on calf protection (from predators and/or
conspecifics) and access to food. Thus, female reproductive success is
expected to correlate with social and ecological factors such as group size
and water depth. Grouping is expected to afford protection against sharks.
Visibility and distribution of prey and predatory sharks may correlate with
water depth.
Other social factors that may influence female reproductive success in
dolphins include mate choice and protection from conspecifics. Females appear
to opportunistically form coalitions against males, but how females exercise
mate choice has not been systematically explored (Connor et al.,
1992a,
1996). Polyestrus cycling and
spontaneous ovulation (Kirby and Ridgway,
1984; Schroeder,
1990) in dolphins may allow females greater choice in mating
partners or reduce paternity certainty and thus protect their offspring from
infanticide (Connor et al.,
1996). Indeed, calves who died from dolphin-inflicted injuries
have washed ashore in the Moray Firth and Virginia, USA, although the
relationships between the victims and perpetrators remain unknown
(Patterson et al., 1998;
Dunn et al., 1999).
Infanticide has not been documented in Shark Bay, but the unpopulated
coastline and high shark density make carcass recovery unlikely (also see
Connor et al., 1996).
Female reproductive success is also influenced by breeding season and other
demographic and reproductive parameters. After a 12-month gestation, females
typically give birth in the spring or summer
(Connor et al., 1996;
Kasuya et al., 1997;
Urian et al., 1996;
Wells et al., 1987). Studies
of dolphins in captivity report an 18-month lactation period
(Cockcroft and Ross, 1990;
Tavolga, 1966), although field
studies report approximately twice that duration
(Mann and Smuts, 1998;
Wells et al., 1987). Females
typically begin reproduction between 7 and 12 years of age
(Kasuya et al., 1997;
Schroeder, 1990;
Wells et al., 1987). Maximum
life span for Shark Bay females is not known, but Sarasota females may live to
their early 50s (Hohn et al.,
1989; Wells and Scott,
1999). This study investigated factors affecting female
reproduction.
Birth seasonality
We reexamined birth seasonality with a larger sample size than published
previously (Connor et al.,
1996) and also investigated the relation between temperature and
birth peaks. Studies at other sites found that these peaks coincided
(Urian et al., 1996;
Wells et al., 1987), possibly
due to homeothermic or ecological factors. Studies of the relationship between
season and predator and prey density and distribution are currently underway
in Shark Bay.
Seasonal breeding is likely to be primarily in the female's reproductive
interests because she bears the costs of lactation, calf care, and protection.
Calves may be most vulnerable to predation or harassment soon after birth
(Mann and Smuts, 1998),
although the precise cause of calf death is rarely known. Females should favor
larger group sizes when they have young calves (0-3 months), compared to when
they have older calves, but whether group size protects primarily against
predation and/or conspecifics cannot currently be tested.
With a narrow breeding season or loss of calf late in the season, females would be forced to delay conception until the next breeding season if their calf died. With a longer breeding season or loss of calf early in the season, females may resume cycling quickly after calf death.
Male reproductive strategies, specifically their ability to monopolize
females, will also be influenced by the degree of seasonal breeding.
Infanticide is unlikely to be a successful strategy unless males have an
opportunity to monopolize the mother of the deceased infant at the time of her
subsequent conception. We examined seasonal variation in the time lag between
infant death and the female's subsequent pregnancy to determine whether there
is a seasonal "window of opportunity" for male infanticide to be
an adaptive strategy. Alternatively, if neonatal death is high from other
causes (e.g., disease, predation), males may peacefully associate with new
mothers to increase the chances of monopolizing her should the calf die.
Interactions among newborns, mothers, and adult males are rarely observed
(Mann and Smuts, 1998,
1999) but are needed to
distinguish between these hypotheses.
Calf mortality
Age-specific patterns of calf mortality from birth to age 3 (close to
minimum weaning age) were examined. Sixteen of 110 calves in our study were
born to 5 females provisioned with dead fish on a daily basis. We compared
mortality for calves born to provisioned and nonprovisioned females. Field
studies of several mammals suggest artificial provisioning typically increases
female reproductive rate (e.g., vervets, Cercopithecus aethiop:
Lee et al., 1986; baboons,
Papio cynocephalus: Altmann and
Muruthi, 1988).
Weaning and interbirth intervals
The variation in weaning age and its relation to interbirth intervals with
surviving calves was examined. We examined the timing of weaning in relation
to female reproductive status. Females might wean before the next pregnancy,
allowing them to regain body condition. Alternatively, females might wean
during the pregnancy and, if fetal loss occurs, continue nursing their
dependent calf for another year (potentially explaining some of the variation
in age of weaning).
Age at first birth and female reproductive success
We compared age at first birth, survivorship of first-born calves, and
female reproductive success over a 10-year interval. Water depth and group
size factors were examined in relation to female reproductive success. Some
habitats may offer better food or safety from predators, and associates may
offer protection from predators or conspecifics, although potentially enhance
feeding competition. The association between group size and habitat is also
explored to determine if solitary and social females use different habitat
types.
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METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Field site
Shark Bay is located 25°47'S, 113°43'E in Western Australia. After an initial visit in 1982, a long-term study of the Shark Bay dolphins was established in 1984 off of a fishing camp called Monkey Mia. The study area currently extends 300 km2 off the east side of the Peron Peninsula and includes more than 600 animals. Most dolphins are well habituated to small boats (4-5 m), allowing us to follow individuals for many hours (Mann and Smuts, 1998
;
Smolker et al., 1993). The
habitat consists mostly of embayment plains (5-13 m) and shallow seagrass beds
(0.5-4 m) bisected by deeper channels (6-10 m).
Since the 1960s, several dolphins have visited the camp to accept fish
handouts from fishers and tourists (Connor
and Smolker, 1985). The number of provisioned dolphins has varied
over the past 30 years, as has the amount of fish fed to them, both daily and
seasonally. Currently, three adult females and their offspring visit Monkey
Mia on a daily basis. The feedings are controlled by rangers, who allow only
the adult females to be fed up to 2 kg per day.
Subjects
The complete sample includes 83 females and their 142 calves. Sexes were
determined primarily by sighting of the genital area, reliable presence of a
dependent calf, and in three cases via genetic sampling
(Krützen M, unpublished data). Sample sizes vary
by analysis according to the quality of the data (i.e., whether exact
birthdates, weaning dates, sex, and survivorship were known). For example, if
a mother and newborn calf were sighted together one year, but neither mother
nor calf were sighted for several years, and the calf was not sighted again,
we could not determine calf survivorship, but can use the case for birth
seasonality. Calves' dorsal fins are less distinctive than their mothers',
making it difficult to keep track of juveniles. Similarly, exact birth month
or year was not known for all calves due to gaps between sightings. However,
such calves might still survive to weaning, and documentation of association
pre- and postweaning is still possible.
Surveys
Most of the data come from 3457 surveys of females and calves during 77
months of fieldwork between 1988 and 1998. Additional sighting, demographic,
and behavioral information was added from 1330 hours of focal follows on 42
calves who were also surveyed, field notes from researchers, rangers at the
Monkey Mia Dolphin Information Centre, and a tour operator who photographed
new calves when researchers were not in the field. Twenty of the focal calves
were observed to weaning, and in 17 of those cases, either mother or calf was
observed postweaning. Each of the 83 females was sighted during surveys on
average 69 times (SD = 84, median = 46).
Surveys were conducted regularly by all researchers in Shark Bay. When a
dolphin was sighted, we recorded identity of animals in the group using a 10-m
chain rule (Smolker et al.,
1992). Nongroup members were also indicated. For association and
group size analyses, all animals within the 10-m chain during the first 5 min
of the survey were considered, regardless of their activities. Dorsal fins
were photographed for all animals not readily identifiable and later matched
to a catalogue photo. Location (GPS or compass bearings), water depth,
temperature, and activities were systematically recorded. If mother and calf
were observed swimming in infant position (calf swims under the mother,
lightly touching her abdomen), a reliable indicator of continued dependency
and nursing (Mann and Smuts,
1998), this was noted.
Each time a calf was sighted for the first time, the observer recorded
estimated size and age, fetal lines, swimming style (chin-up and cork-up
surfacings, consistent echelon swimming;
Mann and Smuts, 1999), spatial
relationship with the mother, and other details to determine age. Detailed
observations of newborn calves indicate that fetal lines typically disappear
by 3 months of age, and swimming style changes rapidly during the first month
of life (Mann and Smuts,
1999).
Birthdates and birth seasonality
Birthdates were estimated based on last sighting of mother before calf
birth and first sighting of mother with calf. If year of birth could not be
determined, the calf was not included in age-specific mortality and weaning
analysis. All known births that could be estimated within 3 months were used
for birth season data. This included 47 mothers and 74 calves, with accurate
birth estimates to within 1 month (N = 50), 2 months (N =
16), and 3 months (N = 8).
Temperature
We collected data on surface water temperature during 2582 surveys. These
were averaged by month. No temperature readings were collected during
February.
Calf mortality
If mothers were sighted repeatedly without their calf when the calf was
<3 years of age, we presumed that the calf died. Although a few calves were
weaned as early as 2.7 years, the two cases of calf disappearance between ages
2 and 3 involved calves who should have been observed often and who had
distinctive fins. In cases where we could not be certain if the calf was
weaned or died, we excluded these cases from the analysis. Deaths were
classified by calf age: <12 months, 12-23 months, and 24-35 months. Calves
that survived to 3 years of age were considered survivors, even if they were
not yet weaned. Of 110 calves used in the survivorship analysis, 16 were born
to 5 provisioned females, and 94 were born to 58 nonprovisioned females. To
compare provisioned and non-provisioned groups, we used survival analysis
(Kaplan-Meier method), which is most suitable for small data sets with
precisely measured event times. The Wilcoxon chi-square statistic was
calculated by taking the weighted sum of the deviations of observed numbers of
mortality events from expected numbers of events and squaring them for either
group.
Weaning
Weaning age was estimated by taking a midpoint between two time points. The
time points were based on two major behavior changes: (1) last sighting of
infant in infant position and cessation of infant position swimming with the
mother and (2) marked change in mother-calf association from
always/consistently sighted together to always/consistently apart. Calves do
not swim in infant position once the next sibling is born. All calves who
markedly reduced association with their mothers had ceased swimming in infant
position. However, one calf born to a provisioned female continued to
associate at high levels with her mother but had ceased swimming in infant
position. Detailed focal observational data were collected on 20 calves until
weaning, including this mother-calf pair, allowing us to be certain of the
weaning date. All nursing occurs from infant position, and once calves cease
infant position swimming, they never resume
(Mann and Smuts, 1998). That
is, in 1330 focal h and 3457 surveys of calves and females, weaning was
clearly demarcated by the absence of infant position swimming and a
significant drop in mother-calf association. Nursing is virtually never
observed during surveys but is often seen during focal follows. Nursing (beak
to mammary slit) was observed during the last 6 weeks of infant position
swimming for three of four focal mother-calf pairs observed in detail
throughout the weaning process. The fourth pair was observed from greater
distances (because we used a larger vessel), thus making it unlikely we could
detect nursing.
For 42 calves, we had accurate weaning ages (known birth and weaning month)
based on survey and follow data. Coefficients of association (COA) between
mother and calf were calculated using the halfweight method
(Cairns and Schwager, 1987) for
preweaning and for up to 2 years postweaning. COA between individual a and b =
2 Nab / Na + Nb, in which Nab is the
number of times a and b were in the same group, and Na and
Nb are the total number of group sightings for a and b. We multiply
this formula by 100 to yield a number between 0 and 100, where 0 = a and b are
never sighted together, to 100 = a and b are always sighted together. For some
calves, we did not have accurate birth years, but with accurate weaning month,
we could calculate COA pre- and postweaning (N = 45 calves for COA
analysis).
Interbirth intervals
Years between birth of a surviving calf and another birth were used to
determine interbirth intervals (IBI). We used two methods. In the first
method, we restricted our sample to 33 cases where the female was sighted
often annually, reducing the likelihood that we missed a birth. Of these, only
three had a gap large enough between weaning of the first calf and the birth
of the second calf that a pregnancy and loss could have occurred. The 30 cases
with no gap were most accurate. In two cases the IBI was estimated within 2
years. We added half a case to both possible IBI years. The first method would
bias against long IBIs. For the second method, we included all 44 cases with a
surviving calf and a known subsequent birth, regardless of the gap between
weaning of the first calf and birth of the next. In 14 of these cases, the
interval could have been shorter if mothers lost unsighted calves <1 year
of age.
Reproductive success
Female reproductive success (RS) was defined as the number of offspring
surviving to age 3 within a 10-year period. Reproductive success was
classified as 0, 1, 2, or 3, reflecting the number of calves each female had
that survived to age 3. Females (N = 38) and "probable"
females (N = 2) were included in the analysis if (1) they were adult
size at the onset of the 10-year period, (2) known to be at least age 12
(known for provisioned females and estimated for moderate to heavily speckled
females; Smolker et al.,
1992), and (3) we had a consistent sighting history without gaps
large enough such that a surviving calf might escape our notice. Probable
females are those who consistently associate with other females and associate
with males only when apparently being herded by them. We did not include
probable females in analysis of group size and water depth in relation to
female reproductive success. We included only those cases where the death or
survival to age 3 of all calves was known. Censored calves (born after 1995,
N = 7) were excluded because they were not old enough to be weaned.
(Censored cases refer to those where the end point, such as survival, death,
or weaning, has not yet been determined.) A depth sounder was not used on one
boat from 1996 to 1998 because of acoustic recordings. Thus, the sample sizes
for depth were smaller than for group size
(Table 1).
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Because error variance should decrease with an increase in the number of
surveys per female, weighted least squares regression was applied. This means
that cases (females) with large weight (more surveys) have small variance and
were more important in the regression analysis (WLS, weighted least squares
linear regression; Hocking,
1996). For the 38 females, an average of 101 surveys per female
were collected (SD = 86, median = 72).
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Birth seasonality
Figure 1 shows the seasonal pattern of births in relation to temperature. October-December were clearly the peak birth months (accounting for 73% of all births), just preceding peak temperatures, but the breeding season broadly extended from September to January (90% of births), with approximately seven out-of-season births February-August.
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The interval between the death of a calf and the next conception was
calculated using only deaths and pregnancies known within 3 months (N
= 17 calf deaths followed by a pregnancy within 1 year). A midpoint was used
for ranges of deaths and/or conceptions known within 2-3 months. No midpoints
were used for 10 of 17 estimates because they were accurate within 1 month.
Month of conception was considered to be 12 months before calf birth; we
assumed no births were premature. All mothers conceived within 1-2 months
(mean = 1.2 months, SD = 0.4) following loss of calf July-December, but
conceived 2-9 months following calf loss in January-June (mean = 5.3, SD =
2.3; Figure 2). Thus, females
were still more likely to conceive within season following calf loss (76.5%)
than not (binomial test, p <.02). The three 2-month intervals that
occurred out of season were in late summer, January-March. These were
responsible for half the out-of-season births in
Figure 1 where the previous
calf's status was known. Length of interval to next conception was inversely
correlated with month of year (beginning with January, the last month of
breeding season) that previous calf died (Spearman r = -.531,
p <.05; Figure 2).
Out-of season births were not significantly more likely to be preceded by calf
death than within-season births (
2 = 2.59, p =.11, df
= 1, N = 44). The sample for out-of-season births is too small to
determine if those calves were less likely to survive to age 3 than calves
born in season.
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We hypothesized that females would resume cycling faster after losing a
small calf (early in lactation) compared to an older calf. A small newborn
calf (<3 month) is likely to be less costly to the mother's fat reserves
compared to a larger calf. Loss of a newborn (<3 months, N = 5)
always resulted in pregnancy within the year, but in one-third of the losses
of older calves (3-18 months, N = 23), females did not become
pregnant within the year (2 = 2.44, p =.12, df = 1).
The small newborn sample suggested a trend.
Age at first birth
To examine age at first birth, only females sighted >10 times annually
were included so births were unlikely to be missed. Four females gave birth to
their first calf at age 12, one had her first at age 14, and another at age
15. However, seven females between ages 12 and 15 have not given birth,
although some of these may have lost calves before being sighted. Two of nine
first-born calves documented in our population survived to age 3, one is
currently age 2, and the other less than 1 year (three mothers were of unknown
age but were judged as subadult in the late 1980s or early 1990s). The sample
size of first-born calves is too small to determine whether survivorship is
significantly lower than for later-born calves.
Calf mortality
Survival analysis (Kaplan-Meier method) of calf mortality from birth to age
3 revealed high first-year mortality at 29%
(Figure 3), with mortality
rates declining in the second (18%) and third (3%) years. Forty-four percent
of 110 calves died by age 3.
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A comparison of calves born to provisioned and nonprovisioned females revealed a significant difference in first-year mortality and overall (Wilcoxon
2 = 4.86, p =.027). First-year mortality
was 56% for calves born to provisioned females compared to 24% for calves born
to nonprovisioned females. By age 3, 62% of calves born to provisioned and 40%
of calves born to nonprovisioned females died. Mortality rates for calves born
to provisioned and nonprovisioned females did not differ significantly for the
second or third year.
Weaning and COA
Weaning ages are shown in Figure
4. The majority of calves (66.7%) were weaned before their fourth
birthday (N = 42 calves). Three calves were weaned in their sixth
year, two calves in their seventh year, and one in her ninth year.
The COA of all calves preweaning averaged 94.0 (SD = 6.5, median = 96.0, range = 77.4-100) and averaged 25.3 postweaning (SD = 24.2, median = 20.2, range = 0-82.5). The only calf with a postweaning COA within the range of preweaned calves was the daughter of a provisioned female.
For seven calves, we knew the precise weaning age (within 1 month) and gestational status of the mother at time of weaning. Gestational status of the mother was determined by the birth of the next calf. Five calves were weaned during month 5, one during month 6, and one during the month 10 of the mother's next pregnancy.
Interbirth intervals
As expected from weaning data, IBIs for surviving calves were between 3.0
and 6.2 years (N = 33 intervals). Four-year intervals were most
typical (47% of intervals; mean = 4.55 ± 1.00, median = 4.07;
Figure 5). If we include all
intervals after a surviving calf, irrespective of whether we may have missed a
birth in between, then the mean IBI is 4.71 ± 1.38 years (median =
4.06, range = 3.0-9.9, N = 44 intervals). Only two IBIs were >7
years.
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Female reproductive success
Figure 6 shows the variation
in female RS based on the number of surviving calves over a 10-year period.
Thirty percent of the females had no surviving calves, 37.5% had one surviving
calf, 25% had two surviving calves, and 7.5% had three. We know the lifetime
RS of one provisioned female, who died at approximately age 35 based on
tooth-layer analysis (Hohn AA, personal communication) and who left two
daughters who survived to reproduction. Based on the density and distribution
of her ventral speckles (see Smolker et
al., 1992), she was one of the oldest dolphins in the study area.
Few females have comparable speckle density. However, her death was caused by
a ray spine, not old age. If females typically have a 20-year reproductive
period (early teens to early 30s), then maximum lifetime RS is likely to be
five to six calves; but if female reproductive life span approaches that of
larger Tursiops in other populations, this estimate may be too
conservative.
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To examine if group size and water depth are predictors for female RS, we used the WLS linear regression, including an interaction term for group size and water depth. Water depth alone predicted female RS (yRS = 1.6231 - 0.0112 - 0.0055 + 0.0006; t = -3.19, df = 1, p <.002; Table 1). Group size did not interact with or relate to water depth. Mean group size for females was 5.9 (SD = 4.2, median = 4.2, range = 1-40). Some females were fairly solitary, with median group sizes of two (typically mother and offspring), while others were quite sociable, with median group sizes of eight. Depth averaged 6.3 m (SD = 2.5, median = 6.0, range = 0.7-14.5 m). The WLS regression model indicated that for each 3.5 m increase in depth, female RS declined by 1/10 of one calf.
The number of surveys per female was significantly correlated with the mean (Pearson r = -.46, p <.01) and median (Pearson r = -.43, p <.01) water depth. That is, shallow-water females were sighted more often than deep-water females. However, the provisioned females, who were surveyed often, account for this difference. If the five provisioned females are removed, this relationship is no longer significant (r = -.24, -.29, respectively). Mean and median group size did not significantly correlate with number of surveys (Pearson r =.10 and.04, respectively).
As the mortality data indicate, first-year calves were more vulnerable than older calves. Thus, we examined group size in relation to calf age. Because female sociability varies, we included only surviving calves who were surveyed in all relevant age classes so that the change within each calf could be determined. Group size did not differ when we compared group size for calves 0-6 months with calves 7-24 months (22 calves, 346 surveys; Table 2), but during the newborn period (0-3 months), calves were in significantly larger groups than when aged 4-6 months (Wilcoxon matched-pairs, signed-ranks test, t = 2, p <.006, N = 9 calves, 78 surveys; Table 2).
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Birth seasons appear to be more pronounced in Shark Bay and Sarasota, Florida (Wells et al., 1987
),
than other in Tursiops field sites (see
Kasuya et al., 1997;
Urian et al., 1996), although
different sampling methods (live animal sightings versus newborn strandings
and fetal lengths) may account for these differences. Females may give birth
seasonally because warm water is thermally efficient for small calves or for
mothers. Food availability may fluctuate sufficiently to favor seasonal
births, allowing females to maximize intake when nutritional stress is likely
to be greatest, at mid-lactation (Oftedal,
1997). The availability of weaning foods for calves is unlikely to
favor seasonal births because calf foraging is so variable, beginning years
before weaning. Predator densities may also influence birth seasonality.
The birth season and mortality data suggest that females resume cycling
rapidly if the timing of calf loss allows them to give birth within season the
following year. Calf age and seasonal factors are likely to influence
vulnerability to predation or infanticide. Newborn calves are probably most
vulnerable, and this is when mothers stayed in the largest groups compared to
other age classes. Most calf growth occurs in the first year
(Read et al., 1993). Captive
female Tursiops truncatus increase food intake by 50% during
mid-lactation, suggesting a significant nursing cost
(Cheal and Gales, 1992). Once
the mother has invested her fat reserves in nursing an older calf (>3
months), she may be unlikely to cycle rapidly following calf loss.
If male dolphins are infanticidal, we predict that females with young
calves would avoid less familiar males more often during this period of risk
(August to December), relative to periods of lower risk (January to July).
Because females mate promiscuously and associate with multiple males during
the months before conception, paternity confusion might be sufficient to
minimize any infanticide risk (Connor et
al., 1996). Because adult males rarely associate with mothers of
new calves (Mann and Smuts,
1998), it is difficult to determine whether such associations are
affiliative or not. More extensive observations of cycling females and mothers
with new calves may help resolve some of these issues. At this point we can
only suggest that male mating opportunities following calf loss appear to be
limited by season and calf age.
First-year calf mortality (24%) for nonprovisioned females is similar to
rates reported for Tursiops trunctatus at Sarasota, Florida (19%;
Wells et al., 1987) and for
Stenella frontalis in the Bahamas (24%;
Herzing, 1997). We likely
underestimated mortality for young calves, given that some calves probably
died before being sighted. Although infancy, and the first year in particular,
is the period of greatest mortality risk, juveniles also disappear. Of 46
juveniles, all were repeatedly sighted in the study area after weaning, but
five disappeared 1 year or more after weaning and are presumed dead.
Mortality data on calves born to provisioned and nonprovisioned females was
first provided to the Australian Department of Conservation and Land
Management (CALM) in 1994 (Wilson,
1994). Monkey Mia has been the longest operating site permitting
the provisioning of wild dolphins. In response to the mortality figures
provided in 1994, feeding procedures were changed to reduce the amount
provisioned and to encourage the dolphins to spend more time away from the
provisioning area. Since the changes were implemented in 1995, no calf deaths
have occurred, and three calves have been successfully weaned. Although this
analysis included those surviving calves and the mortality differences remain
significant, we are cautiously optimistic that the policy changes are working
and reducing calf mortality.
Possible causes of the higher mortality may be or may have been: (1)
disease resulting from human contact or septic pollution
(EPA, 1989); (2) change in
mother—calf contact, behavior, or associations (see
Mann and Smuts, 1999); (3)
change in diet or predator or prey concentrations near shore; and (4) sampling
biases (infrequent sightings of nonprovisioned females would increase
likelihood of missing a calf that died soon after birth). Although the
first-year mortality rate for calves born to nonprovisioned females is likely
to be higher than what we report, it is unlikely to be as twice as high,
comparable to the rate for calves born to provisioned females. Photographs of
new calves from a year-round daily tour operator since 1993 have allowed us to
monitor more births and deaths regardless of season or weather.
Preweaning association coefficients are not 100 (as reported in
Smolker et al., 1992) because
mother and calves separate for brief periods, particularly during foraging
(Mann and Smuts, 1998;
Smolker et al., 1993). In this
study, we included all sightings; Smolker and colleagues
(1992) excluded sightings
where foraging was the predominant activity. Thus our preweaning coefficients
ranged between 77 and 100.
The weaning ages reported here are similar to those for Tursiops
in Florida (Wells et al.,
1987). Although association patterns can be used to estimate
weaning age, infant position is a more reliable indicator. Opportunistic
observations indicate that calves nurse, at least occasionally, for the entire
period of infant position swimming, typically 3-6 years and occasionally up to
8 years. Age-specific changes in milk composition and/or intake from birth to
weaning are unknown. Even if nursing rate could be determined, this is poorly
correlated with milk intake in mammals
(Cameron, 1998). Similar to
spotted dolphins (Stenella frontalis;
Herzing, 1997), females
continue nursing their offspring nearly halfway through the next pregnancy
(based on infant position, observations of nursing attempts, and subsequent
birth of sibling). This strategy may assure a viable pregnancy before weaning
the previous calf. Simultaneously lactating and pregnant females are reported
in other Tursiops populations
(Kasuya et al., 1997). Minimum
IBIs are shorter than those we had previously reported
(Connor et al., 1996), but
still longer than the 2-year minimum reported in Sarasota
(Wells et al., 1987).
The ages at first birth in Shark Bay (12-15) are within the ranges reported
for other Tursiops, although several births to 6- to 7-year-old
females occurred in Sarasota, Florida
(Wells et al., 1987). In
captivity, female Tursiops typically begin reproduction at 7-10
years, but may begin cycling between 5 and 7 years
(Schroeder, 1990). Age at
first birth may be later in Shark Bay than in Sarasota because of differences
in body size. Adult Shark Bay females, at 2 m length, are roughly the same
size of Sarasota 2- to 3-year-olds (Read
et al., 1993). A calf born to a 6- to 7-year-old Shark Bay female
may be too small and vulnerable to predators, and the female may not be large
enough or fat enough to nurse a growing calf.
The variation in female RS has implications for attractivity. We would expect males to compete vigorously for females with a history of calf-rearing success, especially given that such females are likely to cycle only for a few months every 3-4 years. Genetic studies underway may indicate that some male coalitions are more likely to father offspring of successful females compared to less successful females.
Group size was not related to female RS. However, group sizes were largest when calves were most vulnerable, in the first 3 months of life. Group size alone may not offer significant advantages against predators or conspecifics, except during this initial period. Because cooperative hunting has not been observed in Shark Bay, group size would not contribute directly to foraging success, although detection of prey or accessibility to optimal habitats may be enhanced by group size. For example, there could be subtle forms of female cooperation in defending home ranges and excluding other females. Although degree of sociality does not appear to influence RS, our measures of sociality may be too crude to detect important behavioral and ecological factors. In a fission-fusion society, the context-dependent timing of associations is likely to be critical.
Similarly social and solitary strategies may represent trade-offs. For
example, gregarious females and calves may suffer competitive costs that are
outweighed by social benefits such as reduced male harassment, ectoparasite
removal through reciprocal petting and rubbing, or development of strong bonds
(e.g., potentially important for male calves in the development of alliances),
or improved access to habitats of high prey density. Alternatively, social and
foraging costs may be offset by reduced predation rates. Two of the three most
solitary females in our sample specialize in sponge foraging and spend most of
their time hunting with "sponge tools"
(Smolker et al., 1997),
suggesting that this foraging technique favors a solitary lifestyle. Detailed
comparisons of foraging behavior in social and solitary females may reveal
such trade-offs.
We found that water depth significantly predicted female RS. Norris and
Dohl (1980) first suggested
that many cetaceans move into shallow water to give birth and rear calves
because shallow water affords protection against predation. Our data are
consistent with this hypothesis. We found this effect even though, by most
cetacean standards, our entire study area is shallow. Mothers and calves who
spend more time in very shallow water may be able to detect and avoid sharks
readily compared to those in deeper water. One-third of the calves in the
focal study bore shark bite scars, and several calves were killed by sharks
(Mann and Barnett, 1999). Prey
availability may also be greater in shallow water compared to deep water
habitats, affording females better diets (Heithaus MR, unpublished data).
Current studies of predator and prey distributions in Shark Bay habitats may
provide insights into the causes of this pattern.
Despite the differential mortality, we included provisioned females in the analysis of female RS. All provisioned females spend most of their time in shallow water. If we excluded provisioned females from the analysis, the relationship between water depth and female RS would be greater. Although shallow water may contribute to female RS, the nature of that contribution is unknown.
Our definition of female RS was limited to number of calves surviving to age 3 over a 10-year period. Both calf mortality and weaning age contribute to female RS. Approximately one-third of calves are weaned at later ages; thus late-weaning mothers would have lower RS by our measure but potentially raise calves more likely to reproduce in adulthood.
Bottlenose dolphin females invest heavily in their calves. Few terrestrial
mammals except great apes (e.g., chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes;
Goodall, 1986) and elephants
(Loxodonta africana; Lee and
Moss, 1986) exhibit such prolonged nursing and maternal
investment; no terrestrial mammals reliably show such ranges in weaning age.
Within the Shark Bay population, female dolphins appear to vary widely in
habitat use, sociability, and life-history strategy. Continued study of Shark
Bay dolphins will help explain the relevance of such flexibility to female
reproductive success.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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We thank our colleagues that contributed to this study over the last 11 years: Per Berggren, David Charles, Irven DeVore, Nick Gales, Sharon Gosper, Vincent Janik, Michael Krützen, Harvey Raven, Andrew Richards, Amy Samuels, Bill Sherwin, Rachel Smolker, Barbara Smuts, Richard Wrangham, the rangers of the Dolphin Information Centre and the crew of "Shotover." We are grateful to the many research assistants who made data collection possible: Lauren Acinapura, Ferdinand Arcinue, Jak Ayers, Jenna Barbour, Heidi Barnett, Paul Bourdeau, Fernando Bretos, Thalia Brine, Seana Buchanan, Jenny Burghardt, Caryann Cadman, Scott Crane, Cynthia Davis, Karen Ertel, Sharlene Fedorowitz, Hugh Finn, Cynthia Flaherty, Julie Gros-Louis, Kristina Habermann, Leila Hatch, Doro Heimeir, Christian Johannsen, Ryan LeVasseur, Brenda McGowan, Caitlin Minch, Kristen Nienhaus, Leah Page, Kylie Reid, Catherine Samson, Karissa Schecter, Coleen Sims, Chantal van Brugen, Kelly Waples, Kristel Wenziker, Stephanie Whitmire, and Gabrielle Xena-Hailu. Aleta Hohn aged one of the provisioned females' teeth. Ru San Chen served as statistical consultant. Research support was provided to J.M. and her assistants by The Eppley Foundation for Research, The National Science Foundation grant 9753044, The Helen V. Brach Foundation, Georgetown University, American Cetacean Society, and the New York Explorers Club. Research support was provided to R.C.C. by the National Geographic Society, Fulbright, The University of Michigan, and the National Institutes of Health; research support was provided to M.R.H. by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council Canada grant A6869, the American Museum of Natural History, Marine Mammal Society Shane Award, and Green Cape Wildlife Films. Research support was provided to L.M.B. through private donations to the Dolphins of Shark Bay Research Foundation. Special thanks to Barry Wilson and the Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM) for responding to the plight of the provisioned dolphins by changing the feeding policy and protocols for human—dolphin interactions. CALM, Ron Swann, and The University of Western Australia Dept of Anatomy and Human Biology also provided logistical support. The Monkey Mia Dolphin Resort, Dean and Leisha Massie, and Graeme Robertson have been extraordinarily supportive of our efforts and donated accommodation and office space to our research team. We also thank Richard Holst and Jo Heymans for their kindness and assistance over the years.
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REFERENCES |
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