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Behavioral Ecology Advance Access published online on November 16, 2005
Behavioral Ecology, doi:10.1093/beheco/arj001
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© The Author 2005. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Society for Behavioral Ecology. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oxfordjournals.org
Received April 25, 2005
Revised August 23, 2005
Accepted September 20, 2005

Article

Light intensity limits foraging activity in nocturnal and crepuscular bees

Almut Kelber 1 *, Eric J. Warrant 1, Michael Pfaff 1, Rita Wallén 1, Jamie C. Theobald 1, William T. Wcislo 2, and Robert A. Raguso 3

1 Department for Cell and Organism Biology--Zoology, Lund University, Helgonavägen 3, S-22362 Lund, Sweden
2 Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado 2072, Balboa, República de Panamá
3 Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia SC29208, USA

* To whom correspondence should be addressed.
Almut Kelber, E-mail: almut.kelber{at}cob.lu.se


  Abstract

A crepuscular or nocturnal lifestyle has evolved in bees several times independently, probably to explore rewarding pollen sources without competition and to minimize predation and nest parasites. Despite these obvious advantages, only few bee species are nocturnal. Here we show that the sensitivity of the bee apposition eye is a major factor limiting the ability to forage in dim light. We present data on eye size, foraging times, and light levels for Megalopta genalis (Augochlorini, Halictidae) in Panama, and Lasioglossum (Sphecodogastra) sp. (Halictini, Halictidae) in Utah, USA. M. genalis females forage exclusively during twilight, but as a result of dim light levels in the rain forest, they are adapted to extremely low intensities. The likely factor limiting their foraging activity is finding their nest entrance on return from a foraging trip. The lowest light intensity at which they can do this, both in the morning and the evening, is 0.0001 cd m-2. Therefore, they leave the nest at dimmer light levels in the morning than in the evening. Lasioglossum (Sphecodogastra) foraging is limited by light intensity in the evening, but probably by temperature in the morning in the temperate climate of Utah. We propose that the evolution of nocturnality in bees was favored by the large variance in the size of females.

Keywords: bees; eyes; foraging; insects; ocelli; sensitivity; visual ecology.
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